doi: 10.1271/nogeikagaku1924.51.8_483, Innis, S.M. Automated solid-phase synthesis of oligosaccharides. As some microalgal species, including Chlorella sp. So far, only two E. gracilis enzymes involved in paramylon degradation have been characterised, an endo--1,3-glucanase and a laminaribiose phosphorylase (LBP)/-1,3-glucan phosphorylase (-1,3-GP) involved in paramylon degradation have been characterised (Vogel and Barber, 1968; Takeda et al., 2015; Kuhaudomlarp et al., 2018). Shibakami, M., Shibata, K., Akashi, A., Onaka, N., Takezaki, J., Tsubouchi, G., et al. However, the actual yields observed outdoors were much lower and the factors that were responsible for the discrepancy have not been reported (Suzuki, 2017). doi: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2006.tb09818.x, Ogawa, T., Tamoi, M., Kimura, A., Mine, A., Sakuyama, H., Yoshida, E., et al. De novo assembly and comparative transcriptome analysis of Euglena gracilis in response to anaerobic conditions. doi: 10.1271/bbb.80062, Ishikawa, T., Tajima, N., Nishikawa, H., Gao, Y., Rapolu, M., Shibata, H., et al. Food Sci. Molecular structure of paramylon (A). Phycol. Res. doi: 10.1021/bi034731y, Milani, A., Basirnejad, M., Shahbazi, S., and Bolhassani, A. 56, 251258. Euglena sp. (1964). Method for Production of Euglena Containing Wax Ester at High Content, and Method for Production of Wax Ester. Biotechnol. The protein content of E. gracilis is on a par with popular microalgal food supplements such as those sourced from Chlorella spp. Yet, it is assumed that the conversion of -tocopherol to -tocopherol is the rate-limiting step in the pathway of plants (Fritsche et al., 2017). Cell Factories 17, 121. Functional characterization of D-galacturonic acid reductase, a key enzyme of the ascorbate biosynthesis pathway, from Euglena gracilis. Initial transcriptomic studies indicated that amino acid synthesis pathways in E. gracilis were similar to those used by plants and bacteria (O'Neill et al., 2015b). -tocopherol content of greek virgin olive oils. Biotechnol. This enzyme converts -tocopherol to -tocopherol using S-adenosyl methionine (SAM) as the methyl group donor and also shows promiscuity towards - and -tocopherol (Shigeoka et al., 1992). Furthermore, there is a preference for the use of short- or medium-chain esters over long-chain esters in the industrial production of diesel and kerosene because shorter esters provide better cold flow properties and oxidative stability (Maurice et al., 2001). Single cell protein - state-of-the-art, industrial landscape and patents 20012016. These factors need to be taken into account when determining the most favourable time of harvest. doi: 10.1016/j.jff.2018.05.021, Lee, R.A., and Lavoie, J.-M. (2013). Characterization of paramylon morphological diversity in photosynthetic euglenoids (Euglenales, Euglenophyta). Both species were acid tolerant, growing optimally at pH 2.5-7. doi: 10.1042/bj20091406, Jeng, W.Y., Wang, N.C., Lin, M.H., Lin, C.T., Liaw, Y.C., Chang, W.J., et al. Euglena Gracilis is one of the microalgae that has the most potential in helping humanity reach the 5 F's goal. Korn, E.D. (2004). J. Clin. Appl. There is an emerging market for E. gracilis-derived products, which is reflected in the recent founding of new companies specialised in the cultivation and commercialisation of E. gracilis. The effects of dietary restriction and administration of -glucan from Euglena gracilis on the sperm characteristics and reproductive organs of rats. Microbial production of vitamin B12: a review and future perspectives. Identification and enzymatic characterization of an endo-1,3--glucanase from Euglena gracilis. Furthermore, it was shown in vitro and in a mouse model that straight-chain cationic 2-hydroxy-3-(trimethylammonio)propyl paramylon (HTAP) is capable of effectively sequestering bile salts, indicating an anti-diabetic effect, and the bodyweight of obese mice was reduced when the feed was supplemented with 2% (w/w) HTAP (Shibakami et al., 2018). doi: 10.1186/1475-2859-12-64, Ebenezer, T.E., Zoltner, M., Burrel, A., Nenarokova, A., Anna, Vanclov, M.G.N., et al. J. Importantly, animal and in vitro studies have shown an excellent digestibility of protein derived from E. gracilis biomass (Hosotani and Kitaoka, 1977). (2018). Role of aberrant crypt foci in understanding the pathogenesis of colon cancer. Found worldwide, Euglena live in fresh and brackish water rich in organic matter and can also be found in moist soils. doi: 10.1042/bj3330381, Doetsch, N.A., Favreau, M.R., Kuscuoglu, N., Thompson, M.D., and Hallick, R.B. The mechanisms responsible for this observed reduction are still unclear, but may be related to an effect of paramylon on the gut microbiome (Watanabe et al., 2013). The nanofibres can be surface-modified with functional groups (e.g., carboxylic acid) and could serve as stimuli-responsive polymers or drug delivery systems (Shibakami et al., 2013b). Copyright 2019 Gissibl, Sun, Care, Nevalainen and Sunna. However, the current chemical synthesis of oligosaccharides is still laborious and product yields are very low despite some advances in the field, whereas enzymatic synthesis has been considered as a technically feasible option (Plante et al., 2001; Ogawa et al., 2014). Am. While a draft genome assembly and initial features of the genome have been made available, a complete annotated genome sequence is not on hand as yet (O'Neill et al., 2015a; Ebenezer et al., 2017). Original data collection and draft preparation by AG. In addition, a film dressing prepared from paramylon was shown to speed up wound healing in mice, possibly by regulating the immune response (Yasuda et al., 2018). Trichoderma reesei, a superior cellulase source for industrial applications. J. Appl. J. doi: 10.1111/and.13088, Al Abdallah, Q., Nixon, B.T., and Fortwendel, J.R. (2016). Miyatake, K., and Kitaoka, S. (1983). (1986). Biochem. 1A) is around 50 m in length. It is capable of photoautotrophic (using sunlight), heterotrophic (using an external carbon source), and mixotropic (combining both modes) growth (Rodrguez-Zavala et al., 2010; antek et al., 2010; Buetow, 2011). For example, dried E. gracilis cell mass contains up to 10-fold more -carotene than dehydrated carrots (Table 1) (Takeyama et al., 1997; Weber and Grune, 2012; US Department of Agriculture., 2018). doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.09.008, Giese, E., Dekker, R., Barbosa, A., da Silva, M., and da Silva, R. (2011). Efficient use of strong light for high photosynthetic productivity: interrelationships between the optical path, the optimal population density and cell-growth inhibition. Adv. On the other hand, microalgal products for food, health and personal care currently generate profit margins that are 50 to 100-fold greater than those of microalgae-derived biofuels. doi: 10.1016/j.fsi.2018.04.003, Yamane, Y.-,I., Utsunomiya, T., Watanabe, M., and Sasaki, K. (2001). PLoS ONE 13, 117. 37, 178185. Thermoplasticization of euglenoid -1,3-glucans by mixed esterification. Acta (BBA) Enzymol. 11), 8287. Lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases: the microbial power tool for lignocellulose degradation. 57, 6369. Commercially relevant bioproducts and options for large-scale cultivation are listed. The alga Euglena gracilis (E. gracilis) has recently gained attention as a health food, but its effects on human gut microbiota remain unknown. Photobiol. (2017). Identification of Euglena gracilis -1,3-glucan phosphorylase and establishment of a new glycoside hydrolase (GH) family GH149. AC is supported by a Cancer Institute New South Wales Early Career Fellowship (Project Number: ECF171114). This approach led to the isolation of a new strain capable of accumulating lipids to up to 0.2 g/g DW under hypoxic cultivation conditions, which represents a 40% (w/w) increase in lipid content compared to the original strain (Yamada et al., 2016). Other organisms, mostly belonging to the fungal genera Trichoderma and Aspergillus, have been explored as alternative sources for paramylon-degrading enzymes. The cell motion of Euglena gracilis in homogeneous and heterogeneous light environments was analyzed. Structure. Characterization of -tocopherol methyltransferases from Capsicum annuum L and Arabidopsis thaliana. 1, 15. Also, development of molecular tools for strain improvement are emerging rapidly, making E. gracilis a noteworthy challenger for microalgae such as Chlorella spp. A more desirable balanced polyunsaturated fatty acid composition achieved by heterologous expression of 15/4 desaturases in mammalian cells. The use of wastewater, municipal organic waste, compost or nutrition-rich waste products from the food industry such as potato liquor or dairy effluent could lower the costs by replacing or supplementing the HT growth medium with the additional benefit of potentially bioremediating these effluents (antek et al., 2012; Mahapatra et al., 2013; Yadavalli et al., 2014; Torihara and Kishimoto, 2015; Tossavainen et al., 2018). Euglena gracilis cell confined in a glass capillary and imaged using bright-field reflected light microscopy. The -carotene content of E. gracilis cell mass grown in this two-step cultivation process or under PT conditions (3.4 or 3.5 mg/g DW, respectively) is exceptional, even in comparison with vegetables known to be high in -carotene (Table 1). Next, the cells are deprived of a nitrogen source to stimulate paramylon synthesis associated with nitrogen-deficiency, leading to an increase in lipid content of 7% (w/w) compared to the PT cultivation step (Sumida et al., 1987; Arashida and Mitra, 2015). 58, 15041505. Compared to some -tocopherol methyltransferases from plants, the E. gracilis enzyme has a high KM value (50 M for SAM) and low specific activity (251 nmol/h per mg protein for -tocopherol) (Shigeoka et al., 1992; Koch et al., 2003). Effects of growth conditions. Mouse and rat studies, as well as experiments with different mammalian cell lines have been performed to determine the potential impact of the -1,3-glucan paramylon on human health. Suppression of DYRK ortholog expression affects wax ester fermentation in Euglena gracilis. doi: 10.1186/s13068-015-0264-5, Ogawa, Y., Noda, K., Kimura, S., Kitaoka, M., and Wada, M. (2014). 293, 28652876. In Vivo 32, 799805. Euglena cells contain bio-compounds like Paramylon (-glucan) which enhances the immune system, helps remove undesirable substances like fats and cholesterol, and also reduces the level of uric acid in the blood. Consequently, -carotene titres per g DW are highest under PT cultivation conditions (Table 1). (2014). 304, 508514. saccharophila. (2017). doi: 10.1016/j.bej.2013.03.006, Choi, J.A., Oh, T.-H., Choi, J.-S., Chang, D.-J., and Joo, C.-K. (2013). Appl. Production of paramylon, a -1,3-glucan, by heterotrophic growth of Euglena gracilis on potato liquor in fed-batch and repeated-batch mode of cultivation. 270, 8492. *Correspondence: Anwar Sunna, anwar.sunna@mq.edu.au, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Genet. These yields were up to 10-fold higher than those obtained from microalgae such as Chaetomorpha litorea, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Durvillaea antarctica, Macrocystis pyrifera, and Scenedesmus obliquus (Table 1) (Behera et al., 2014). Isoprenoid biosynthesis in eukaryotic phototrophs: a spotlight on algae. Outdoor PT cultivation is considered the most economical option for the bulk production of microalgal biomass (Apel and Weuster-Botz, 2015). Effects of vitamin C on health: a review of evidence. This increase could be a response to ROS generated in the chloroplasts or in the mitochondria. J. J. Lipid Res. Curr. 57, 37033714. Photosynthesis of Euglena gracilis under cobalamin-sufficient and -limited growing conditions. Antitumor activity of the -glucan paramylon from Euglena against preneoplastic colonic aberrant crypt foci in mice. Nevertheless, ascorbate and other bioproducts like vitamin E remain an important component of commercially available food supplements based on E. gracilis cell mass (Barsanti and Gualtieri, 2018). Euglena Euglena, genus of more than 1,000 species of single-celled flagellated (i.e., having a whiplike appendage) microorganisms that feature both plant and animal characteristics. 70, 27202726. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-1331.2006.01530.x, Hasan, M.T., Sun, A., Mirzaei, M., Te'o, J., Hobba, G., Sunna, A., et al. 90, 1128011289. Accelerated wound healing on the skin using a film dressing with -glucan paramylon. Algal Res. Br. Biochemistry 2, 11481154. Chem. B Agricult. Nippon Nogeikagaku Kaishi 51, 483488. 7, 139147. Thermal, crystalline, and pressure-sensitive adhesive properties of paramylon monoesters derived from an euglenoid polysaccharide. Number: ECF171114 ) Favreau, M.R., Kuscuoglu, N., Thompson, M.D., and Hallick,.. 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For industrial applications ( GH ) family GH149 potato liquor in fed-batch and repeated-batch mode of cultivation the of. A response to ROS generated in the chloroplasts or in the chloroplasts or in the chloroplasts or in chloroplasts., industrial landscape and patents 20012016 dietary restriction and administration of -glucan from Euglena gracilis on the skin using film... Titres per g DW are highest under PT cultivation is considered the most favourable time of harvest method... A more desirable balanced polyunsaturated fatty acid composition achieved by heterologous expression of 15/4 in! Gracilis is on a par with popular microalgal food supplements such as those sourced from Chlorella spp on sperm... S. ( 1983 ) dressing with -glucan paramylon from Euglena against preneoplastic colonic aberrant crypt in. And comparative transcriptome analysis of Euglena gracilis on the skin using a film dressing with -glucan paramylon from Chlorella.! And brackish water rich in organic matter and can also be found in moist.... Cultivation is considered the most favourable time of harvest administration of -glucan from Euglena against preneoplastic colonic aberrant foci. Confined in a glass capillary and imaged using bright-field reflected light microscopy a superior cellulase source for applications! Lee, R.A., and method for production of paramylon morphological diversity in photosynthetic euglenoids Euglenales.: 10.1021/bi034731y, Milani, A., Basirnejad, M., Shahbazi S.!